The history of Italy is intricate and influenced by various events, which can be summarized through several significant moments: the Roman Empire, which saw the development of crucial Western values and techniques; the Middle Ages, marked by invasions filling the void left by Roman institutions and the dominance of the Church; the Renaissance, characterized by inventions and advancements in the arts; the Modern Ages, featuring great explorers and ongoing invasions; the Unification under the Kingdom of Italy; and finally, the war and post-war period, during which global tensions gave way to the economic boom of the 1950s.

First inhabitants

1 million -753 B.C.

While the earliest evidence of hominids dates back over 1 million years ago, the first indigenous Homo sapiens civilizations, such as the Etruscans and Ligurians, emerged in the Italian peninsula around the 8th century BC. Over a span of two millennia, Indo-European peoples like the Celts and Latins arrived and integrated with the existing communities, marking the inception of the Italic peoples.

Ancient Age

753-509 B.C. Roman Kingdom – the beginning of a new Era

History was about to change when a group of villages situated around seven hills in what is now the Lazio Region united into a single city. In the year 753 BC, Romulus, legendary rised by a she-wolf, was elected as the first king of Rome. Under the monarchy, the city expanded its territories in the neighboring lands and witnessed monarchs from both Latin, from whom the language was adopted, and Etruscan. This era generated innovations still in use today, such as the 12-month calendar and the earliest sewage systems. The final and seventh king, known for his despotic and violent tendencies, was envisaged by influential people, leading to his exile and the establishment of the Res Publica, literally translated as the Public Thing: the first Republic.

509-27 B.C. Republic – Rome’s unstoppable rise

During the Republican era, power and administrative roles were divided, social progress was achieved through societal protests, and territories were increasingly annexed. After consolidating control over the Italian peninsula, Rome expanded its influence to encompass the entire Mediterranean region, including the long time enemy Carthage (modern-day Tunisia) and the culturally rich Greece. Internal civil conflicts destabilized political power, leading to the rise of influential figures like Julius Caesar. Eventually, Octavian Augustus consolidated authority and gradually established the Empire in 27 BC.

27 B.C.-476 A.D. Roman Empire – peak and decline

Ottaviano, among other accomplishments, established the first police system, constructed infrastructure and public facilities, enhanced the administrative system through the introduction of a common currency and taxation. Additionally, literature and commerce thrived. In the subsequent centuries, numerous emperors vied for power, shifting their focus away from territorial expansion as the empire had reached its maximum manageable size. Instead, they concentrated on internal politics following the latest conquests. Notable events included the construction of the Colosseum and the eruption of Mount Vesuvius over Pompeii, leading to the rise of Christianity as the dominant religion.

From the third century onwards, the empire began to decline, and in 395, it was divided into two: the Western and Eastern Empires. While the Eastern part, with its capital Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul), endured until 1453, the Western part, weakened by internal conflicts and corruption, fell victim to barbarians who invaded cities and dismantled institutions, marking the end of the Roman era.

Middle Ages 

476 – 1000’s Germanic Invasions

The Empire officially ended in 476 when Odoacer, a leader of a Germanic tribe, deposed the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and proclaimed himself king of Italy. The inhabitants of the Italian peninsula then endured successive invasions by various peoples, including the Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, and Franks (among whom was Charlemagne), marked by continuous warfare that resulted in poverty and destruction. Meanwhile, Arabs expanding in the Mediterranean Sea conquered Sicily, only to be defeated in turn by the Vikings (Normans).

1000’s and 1100’s Church influence and the first Communes

During these years, the Church grappled with its escalating corruption, rivaling with the Emperor for supremacy, and it also promoted the Crusades, wars in the Middle East. 

Concurrently, although formally under the jurisdiction of the Holy Roman Empire, many cities in the peninsula began organizing autonomously in the form of communes (a government structure particular to Italy), with some even achieving independence, such as the Maritime Republics. 

The peninsula was economically and culturally vibrant, fostering a sense of common identity and a desire for independence. During this period, the Italian language (volgare) began to replace Latin in official documents, and the first universities in the world were established (Bologna in 1088).

1200’s and 1300’s Signorie (local powers) shape the peninsula

With the decline of the central power the lords (Signori) of wealthy Italian families grew their influence, providing security, stability, and effective governance to municipalities, often supplanting the authority of the empire. They fostered economic prosperity and artistic development (it’s the era of Petrarch, Dante, Boccaccio in literature, and Giotto in the visual arts) and began expanding into neighboring cities, evolving into true independent states. While Signorie governed the Center-North, the South was under the rule of the kingdom of Sicily of a French dynasty and frequently faced invasions by Turks. 

1400’s and 1500’s Blooming of the Renaissance

Italian states eventually engaged in conflicts with each other, notably among Milan, Venice, and Florence. Once a more stable environment was achieved, partly due to the mediation efforts of Lorenzo il Magnifico, the arts flourished during the Renaissance period, particularly in cities such as Florence, Ferrara, Naples, Rome, Venice, Milan, Mantua, and Urbino.

The first half of the 1500s witnessed several invasions by the French kingdom, initially supported and later opposed by several Italian states. Subsequently, incursions were carried out by the Spanish kingdom and the Holy Roman Empire. These invading powers did not bring about innovation or reform but sought only to plunder Italian cities, ultimately leading to a state of continuous conflict that weakened the influence of the Renaissance.

Concurrently, the Church was engaged in the Counter-Reformation aimed to combat the spread of Protestantism and to address internal issues.

Modern Age

1600’s and 1700’s invasions from Spain, Austria, France

Throughout the 1600s, Northern Italy regained its independence, while the South, the Islands, and Milan remained under Spanish domination. Revolts erupted in some cities, but Spanish rule persisted until 1713, when control shifted to the Austrians. The plague of 1630, shifts in trade routes from the Mediterranean to the Americas (made possible also by Italian explorers like Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci), and poor governance contributed to economic stagnation. Nevertheless, the cultural scene remained vibrant, producing great figures such as philosophers (Giordano Bruno), scientists (Galileo Galilei), painters (Caravaggio), architects (Gianlorenzo Bernini), and musicians (Claudio Monteverdi).

During the 1700s, Italy became a battleground for wars waged by external powers. Concurrently, there were efforts to stabilize the economy, particularly in the South, and the influence of Enlightenment ideas, originating in the UK, began to take hold. Between the 1700s and 1800s, Europe witnessed the rise of the charismatic and controversial figure of Napoleon. Purporting to export the ideals of the French Revolution happened in 1789, Napoleon liberated Italian territories from monarchies, only to subject them to other dominators (such as Venice falling under Austrian control) or French rule itself. After crowning himself Emperor, Napoleon expanded his conquests until his ultimate defeat at Waterloo in 1815.

1800’s Restoration and Unification

 The European powers reorganized the geopolitical landscape during the period known as the Restoration. The Borbone family Kingdom assumed control over the South and Sicily, while Lombardy, Veneto, and Istria fell under Austrian rule. Central Italy was dominated by the Church, and Piemonte and Sardinia came under the governance of the Savoia family Kingdom. Additionally, a few other small states gained autonomy. However, the concept of a unified Italy persisted from the Roman era, and throughout the 1800s, people rebelled and organized independence wars against Austria. In 1861, following Garibaldi’s descent into southern Italy with 1000 volunteers to rally local support for a united nation, the Kingdom of Italy was established under the Savoy Family.

During the initial years, the government focused on consolidating control over additional regions (Veneto, Friuli, Rome) and addressing challenges inherent to a newly formed nation, such as standardizing laws, implementing a single currency, constructing infrastructure, managing scarce resources due to years of war and rise levels of education.

Contemporary History

1900-1945 Tragedy of 2 World Wars 

Following the lead of other European nations, Italy attempted to establish colonies in Africa (Libya, Somalia, Eritrea) with limited success. During the First World War, the Italian kingdom fought against the Austro-Hungarian Empire, gaining territories such as Trentino, Alto-Adige, and Venezia-Giulia but suffering heavy losses, including over 1,000,000 casualties, half of whom were civilians, and significant depletion of resources. Widespread discontent paved the way for the1 rise of Benito Mussolini, who seized power and established a dictatorship known as Fascism. Italy subsequently allied with Adolf Hitler’s Germany and entered the Second World War. Despite immense efforts, Italian victories were scarce, leading to Mussolini’s arrest and subsequent execution. Concurrently, the government formed an alliance with the United States, who landed in the south and, together with partisans, liberated the country from German occupation.

1946 Republic, Economic Boom, Europe

On June 2nd, 1946, in a referendum that included women for the first time, Italians voted to replace the monarchy with a republican system. The economy experienced rapid growth, fueled by the flourishing industries of microelectronics and chemistry, as well as economic assistance from the United States and robust reforms. This growth propelled Italy to a level on par with other industrialized nations.

In 1951, Italy, along with France and Germany, founded the European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into the European Union in 1992.

Closing words

Italian history is characterized by various epochs during which multiple individual states coexisted, invaders traversed the land, and periods of splendor alternated with more decadent ages. This amalgamation of influences led to the creation of a unique and culturally rich society today. Additionally, the division of the peninsula into distinct regions and diverse populations fostered strong senses of identity and pride, contributing to the richness of Italy’s cultural landscape.